Healthcare Ethics Consumption of Banned Drugs

Question: Discuss about theHealthcare Ethicsfor Consumption of Banned Drugs. Answer: Introduction: The study mainly helps in depicting the health care ethics, which could be followed in clubs in consumption of banned drugs. Moreover, the study also helps in stating the relative stakeholders, which are responsible for the ethical use of drugs in clubs. Furthermore, the principle virtues are able to depicted, which could help in stating the relative professional ethics used in clubs. The novice effectively states the legal and ethical defensible solution, which could be used in the given scenario. Moreover, the study effectively states the professional ethical dilemma, which is been faced by Kamil Samra in the given scenario. In addition, the two-stakeholder professional of the health care institute in the scenario that are affected from the health care scenario is effectively identified as Kamil Samra, and club managers. Moreover, Kamil mainly faces the ethical dilemma in allowing the banned drugs, which are used by the club managers to enhance the performance of their players. Furthermore, the club is mainly using the enhanced drug Thymosin beta-4, which enhances performance but also hampers health condition of the consumers. Farnan et al., (2013) mentioned that ethics is strictly followed in the professional world as it mainly reduces life expectancy of its users. On the other hand, Carrese et al., (2015) criticises that some players use the performance enhancing drugs, which are not banned by sports organisations. Both the stakeholders have their own dilemma, which needs to be fulfilled. Kamil is mainly the physiotherapist and specialist in treating musculoskeletal of the club, which falls under medic al ethics profession. However, the club manager is mainly liable for increasing the performances of its players, which could help in obtained victory. Discussion: The overall scenario mainly depicts the unethical use of banned drugs Thymosin beta-4, which is been used by AFL club to enchases the performance of its players. Furthermore, the banned drug is been provide by coach and sports scientists to the player, which is been depicted in the scenario. In addition, the scenario is also states that the club manager and management are all aware of the use of unethical drug in the premises. Furthermore, the management has effectively provided increased benefits to Kamil if he ignores the unethical use of drugs. Moreover, the family condition of Kamil is not in great condition, which in turn could ensure care for his poor ageing parents. In addition, the drug that is been used by the AFL club is mainly banned and is in breach of the anti-doping rules in sport. However, the players have to use the drug because of its contract with the AFL club. In addition, the players are not free to refuse the drug, which might affect their health in long-term. Moreover, the scenario mainly violates the legal rules, which is been stated by sport authorities. Furthermore, the principles and virtues of health care ethics in the scenario is been violated by the AFL club to achieve the targeted goals. In addition, the dignity and rights of stakeholders like players and Kamil are been violated in the scenario. The overall human dignity of the players is the main concern, which is been identified from the scenario. The banned Thymosin beta-4 drug might mainly hamper the overall health of the players, which in turn could violate the inherent value of that is been presented by God. In addition, the declaration of human rights mainly proclaims that all humans are created in the image of God and they have the inherent value of being treated equally (Doukas et al., 2013). However, the scenario mainly represents the inhuman act, which is been conducted by the AFL club on the players by forcing them to use drugs that could harm their health in long run. In addition, the virtues and principles of health care ethics in professional practise mainly rely on the Beauchamp Childress 4 principles of health care ethics. The four principles are mainly the backbone of the ethics, which are currently being used in the medical filed. The principles are autonomy, beneficence, non-maleficence and justice, which help in maintaining ethics in the medical field (Herring, 2014). Moreover, the current scenario mainly violates all the four principles that is been laid down in the health and care ethics. Doukas et al., (2015) mentioned that doctors and adequate medical personal for reducing the unethical measures conducted in treatments mainly take Hippocratic Oath. In addition, the first principles mainly state the Autonomy, which allows the person to have a say in the matter. However, the AFL club as its forcing its players to consume dangerous banned drugs, which violates the principle of Autonomy. In addition, the beneficiary principle is also been violated as the clubs management is only working for the interest of their personal gain and neglecting health of their players. The interests of the players are not kept in mind while forcing them to consume the health hazardous drug. In addition, the principle also focuses on the confidentiality terms, which needs to be maintained by the medial personal (Wynia, Papadakis, Sullivan Hafferty, 2014). However, keeping the unethical practises of the club could reduce authenticity of its medical profession and Hippocratic Oath taken by Kamil. Furthermore, the non-maleficence principle mainly states that medical personal are needed to take a Hippocratic Oath, which prevents them to segregate the treatments conducted on their patience. This oath mainly prevents any kind of negligence, which might be conducted by Kamil regarding health of the players. The justice principle mainly emphasises on the fairness and equality among individuals, which are not conducted by the AFL club. Doukas, McCullough Wear (2012) mentioned that ethical measures used by the doctors mainly prevent any use of unethical practises, which could hamper health of its clients. In addition, the above depicted principles mainly motivates Kamil to stop the AFL club mangers for using the banned drugs on their players. In addition, code of ethics and professional code of conduct that is identified in the scenario are Libertarianism and Deontology. These two depicted theories are mainly helpful in stating the overall dilemma of the scenario. In addition, deontology theory is mainly depicts the absolute rule, which must be followed by the medial personal in every case (Gholami-Kordkheili, Wild, Strech, 2013). According to this theory, Kamil could stop the use of the unethical drugs and report to the appropriate authorities regarding the situation. Moreover, the libertarianism theory mainly states the liberty, which must be delivered to each individual for conducting his or her activities. However, the contractual agreement of the players has mainly reduced the ability to refuse the consumption of Thymosin beta-4 drug. Moreover, the drug with the complaint from World Anti-Doping Agency was banned in 2016 (Stoff et al, 2016). The drug is mainly used for increasing the heart beat rate, which in turn ha mper future health of the individual. In addition, the legal and ethical defensible solution for the scenario could be made by depicting the laws like ACT Health Professional Act 2004, NSW Medical Practice Amendment Act 2008 and Various Whistle?blowers Protection Acts. In addition, above mentioned laws could effectively helped in building the defensible resolution, which could reduce the unethical use of drugs in AFL club. Moreover, the World Anti-Doping Agency has banned the drug Thymosin beta-4 from being used as a performance-enhancing drug among players. In addition, the health professional act 2004 mainly prevents the use of this drug as it directly affects long-term health of the players. Furthermore, the whistler blower act could mainly help in hiding Kamils identity, which could help in maintaining his integrity and work environment. However, Wells, Lehavot Isaac (2015) mentioned that WNDA has been effectively conducting surveys and tests, which help in detecting drugs, that might hamper health of the players in long run. Furthermore, the above-mentioned laws depicts the unethical measures, which is been taken by AFL club mangers. In addition, Kamil with the help of WNDA could effectively prevent the forceful uses of the hazardous drugs and save the Hippocratic Oath. In addition, the Australian Health Practitioner Regulation Agency could be tipped by Kamil regarding the unethical uses of drugs that is been banned by WNDA. Moreover, the agency and laws might mainly help Kamil to reduce the unethical measures that is been conducted in the premises of AFL club. Conclusion: The overall study mainly helps in depicting relevant1 theories, principles and laws, which could be used by Kamil for reducing the unethical measures conducted by the AFL club. In addition, the overall Beauchamp Childress 4 principles of health care ethics have been depicted the study to help Kamil in making the required ethical decision in the scenario. Furthermore, the use of ethical law, human rights and virtues has mainly helped Kamil in making the ethical decision of reporting the breach of the anti-doping rules in sport conducted by AFL. Lastly, with the help of adequate laws Kamil has developed a defensible solution for the scenario, which could prevent the use of health hazardous medicines. Reference and Bibliography: Annas, G. J., Crosby, S. S., Glantz, L. H. (2013). Guantanamo Bay: A Medical Ethicsfree Zone?.New England Journal of Medicine,369(2), 101-103. Australian Health Practitioner Regulation Agency - Home. (2016).Ahpra.gov.au. Retrieved 26 October 2016, from https://www.ahpra.gov.au/ British Medical Association. (2012).Medical ethics today: the BMA's handbook of ethics and law. John Wiley Sons. Carrese, J. A., Malek, J., Watson, K., Lehmann, L. S., Green, M. J., McCullough, L. B., ... Doukas, D. J. (2015). The essential role of medical ethics education in achieving professionalism: the Romanell Report.Academic Medicine,90(6), 744-752. Doukas, D. J., Kirch, D. G., Brigham, T. P., Barzansky, B. M., Wear, S., Carrese, J. A., ... Lederer, S. E. (2015). Transforming educational accountability in medical ethics and humanities education toward professionalism.Academic Medicine,90(6), 738-743. Doukas, D. J., McCullough, L. B., Wear, S. (2012). Perspective: Medical education in medical ethics and humanities as the foundation for developing medical professionalism.Academic Medicine,87(3), 334-341. Doukas, D. J., McCullough, L. B., Wear, S., Lehmann, L. S., Nixon, L. L., Carrese, J. A., ... Kirch, D. G. (2013). The challenge of promoting professionalism through medical ethics and humanities education.Academic Medicine,88(11), 1624-1629. Farnan, J. M., Sulmasy, L. S., Worster, B. K., Chaudhry, H. J., Rhyne, J. A., Arora, V. M. (2013). Online medical professionalism: patient and public relationships: policy statement from the American College of Physicians and the Federation of State Medical Boards.Annals of internal medicine,158(8), 620-627. Frank, A. W. (2013).The wounded storyteller: Body, illness, and ethics. University of Chicago Press. General Assembly of the World Medical Association. (2014). World Medical Association Declaration of Helsinki: ethical principles for medical research involving human subjects.The Journal of the American College of Dentists,81(3), 14. Gholami-Kordkheili, F., Wild, V., Strech, D. (2013). The impact of social media on medical professionalism: a systematic qualitative review of challenges and opportunities.Journal of medical Internet research,15(8), e184. Herring, J. (2014).Medical law and ethics. Oxford University Press, USA. Kaczmarczyk, J. M., Chuang, A., Dugoff, L., Abbott, J. F., Cullimore, A. J., Dalrymple, J., ... Pradhan, A. (2013). e-Professionalism: A new frontier in medical education.Teaching and learning in medicine,25(2), 165-170. Stoff, B. K., Scully, K., Housholder, A. L., Fabbro, S., Kantor, J. (2016). The American Academy of Dermatology (AAD) Ethics Pledge: I will put my patients' welfare above all other interests, provide care that adheres to professional standards of practice, provide care for those in need, and foster collegiality through interaction with the medical community.Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology,75(2), 445-448. Wells, D. M., Lehavot, K., Isaac, M. L. (2015). Sounding off on social media: the ethics of patient storytelling in the modern era.Academic Medicine,90(8), 1015-1019. What we do. (2016).World Anti-Doping Agency. Retrieved 26 October 2016, from https://www.wada-ama.org/en/what-we-do Wynia, M. K., Papadakis, M. A., Sullivan, W. M., Hafferty, F. W. (2014). More than a list of values and desired behaviors: A foundational understanding of medical professionalism.Academic Medicine,89(5), 712-714.

Survival Guide Essays - Adolescence, Educational Psychology

Survival Guide This book is exactly what it says it is ? a Guidebook or Manual for both parents and teens that offers insight and advice on a wide range of adolescent developmental concerns. Organized into convenient topical sections for both parent and teen readers, the text can be easily consulted when seeking advice on a particular issue, or simply read cover to cover. Either way, the reader will find a wealth of practical advice for both parent and teen. The authors approach their subject in a sympathetic and sensitive manner in an effort to ameliorate typical parent/teen confrontations. Sections intended for teen readers are highlighted in blue and written in a conversational style where the author is talking to the teen reader. Numerous quotes from other teens are interspersed within these sections to give the material a very user-friendly feel. Parents will find these sections very useful in that they provide a supportive and understanding perspective. They give teens a chance to step into the shoes of their parents and ponder their situation within a wide range of potential parental concerns. The primary content of the book is intended for parents and goes into more depth than a typical teen section. Illustrated with easy to follow graphic organizers, the section intended for parents is packed with numerous case histories, tables and charts, questionnaires, dialogues, and issues common to families with teenagers. Of particular importance are the case histories, dialogue, and issue boxes. The case histories are taken from real-life situations and present both problem and solution for a wide range of situations. These stories present the point of view of both parent and teen, which the reader can compare and contrast to his or her own situation. They also provide insight into the probable cause of the conflict as well as explaining how the problem was actually resolved. The issues sections present problems that parents and teens tend to argue about. Issues such as style of dress and friendships are written is such a way as to provide a helpful "middle ground" position for parents to take while struggling with a recalcitrant teen. The dialogue boxes present scenarios common to families dealing with teenagers. In addition to presenting a typical parent/teen conversation (such as playing music too loud or talks about drugs) these sections offer insight on how to discuss certain issues with your teens. Having such models to follow can be very helpful to a parent or teacher searching for the right words or ways in which to approach a controversial subject. In addition to the dialogue, the authors have also included advice at the end of dialogue sections that suggest several ways in which the stated problem might be reconciled. The numerous tables found throughout the text provide convenient, up-to-date data on a wide variety of issues. Parents and teachers alike can make good use of these tables, in particular, the section in the first chapter dealing with physical development. Entitled "Milestones of Early (ages 11 to 14), Middle (ages 15 to 16), and Late Adolescence (ages 17 to 18)", this section presents various developmental milestones in the context of the consequence for the child as well as the potential effect on the family. Of all the issues and concerns expressed in this book, the only section which parents may find objectionable concerns chapter eleven ? sexuality in adolescence. The authors seemingly approach this subject with a no-holds-barred policy. They discuss all possible sexual issues, from the more innocuous dating and foreplay concerns to controversial issues such as homosexuality, masturbation and pre-marital sex. Parents with strong religious convictions may take issue with a number of the authors' perspectives and recommendations. For instance, concerning the issue of early sexual experimentation the authors say: "...in itself early...sexual experience is not necessarily either abnormal or deviant... early sexual behavior ? although it may shock or disappoint you ? should not be regarded as a major catastrophe." Pg. 127 Concerning homosexuality the authors say: "...you have no choice but to accept that this (homosexuality) is the way things are. They cannot help being gay and they cannot change ? even if they want to." (Pg. 131) On the issue of deciding to become sexually active the authors say: "You (the teenager) are the only person who can make decisions about your body, your feelings, and your life." (Pg 132 in a section intended for teen readers) On the issue of "safe sex" the authors say: "Probably the most important thing to consider before you start having sex is how to avoid unwanted pregnancy." (Pg. 135

Article Critique #1 Essays - Abuse, Social Psychology, Persecution

Article Critique #1 Essays - Abuse, Social Psychology, Persecution SED 578 Article Critique #1 Bullying behaviors in school remains a major issue even today. Behaviors such as physical aggression, taunting, teasing, name-calling, threatening, social exclusion, and harassment have negative effects both socially and academically for students engaging in the behaviors and those targeted. They may become anxious and depressed, isolate themselves from peer groups, or even avoid school for fear of being bullied. Prevalence estimates suggest that bullying behavior is not limited to an isolated few students, but occurs across all strata and subgroups in most schools (Bradshaw & Waasdorp, 2011). Male students are more likely than female students to engage in these bullying activities and there is a rise in bullying during transition periods such as moving from middle school to high school. Children and youth who engage in bullying behavior may have a physical advantage, higher social status, or power in numbers, whereas those who are targeted by bullies are likely to be smaller in stat ure, poor or of different culture. There have been many programs suggested over the years to help prevent bullying behavior. One of these approaches to prevention is to build a positive environment for all students and to teach constructive responses. Holding school assemblies with speakers who highlight the harmful effects of bullying and to teach students how to identify bullies, then follow up with a focus on catching these students in the act and providing increasingly severe punishment. Additional programs may include conflict resolution, peer support systems, or working with individuals identified as bullies. Often, anti-bullying programs are implemented as a response to an already significant bullying problem. However, aggressive behavior developed at a young age tends to endure and escalate as the individual moves into late childhood and adolescence (Berthold Kellam, Rebok, Ialongo, & Mayer, 1994). Once these patterns of behavior become established in schools, intervention can be difficult. Schools respond to bullying by implementing more rules and applying more severe consequences, and if that does not work, the response is to make consequences more severe. Bullies often hold negative opinion of others, have difficulty resolving problems, and come from a hostile family associated with poor parental monitoring and authoritarian discipline styles. Bullies who observe these aggressive acts tend to view violence positively and model a need for power with enjoyment in hurting others. Thats why as teachers, beings a key influence in a students life, need to place a key focus on understanding the underlying problems of why these students are acting the way they are. Too often, school personnel focus on unwanted behaviors, and provide punitive consequences when these behaviors are observed. Rigby and Bagshaw (2003) found that approximately 50% of the adolescent participants perceived that teachers were more likely to yell at the bullies, a response that reinforces the same techniques used by the bully. When school policy is designed to punish unwanted behavior, students may not know what behavior is desired, and long-term behavioral change may not occur. Bullying often occurs when supervision is lacking, such as on the playground. Yet, even with greater attention to supervision and monitoring, teachers and other school personnel often do not recognize bullying incidents or the frequency of this behavior. Also, they do not always accurately identify the bully, often lack confidence in their ability to deal with a bullying situation, and tend to underreport these incidents. When educators dismiss bullying behaviors and do not intervene, it appears as if they support aggressive behaviors. Thus, when students believe that the school culture is one that ignores bullying, they are less likely to seek help. That is why we must pay close attention and make sure we have interventions ready to go when these kinds of issues arise. Bullying is a social concern and schools have an obligation to be active to prevent bullying behaviors. Collaborative approaches amongst teachers, school counselors, and families bring about a positive attitude in which the skills of educators support one another for the benefit of the students. We share school-wide considerations for bullying policies, and how school counselors, educators and parents can all lend their expertise to encourage and advance young adolescent development while also teaching and learning preventive strategies to reduce bullying behaviors in schools. Heinrichs, R. R. (2003).

C With a Line Over It What Does It Mean

C With a Line Over It What Does It Mean SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips Have you gotten a prescription or note from a doctor or nurse with a mysterious symbol that looks like "c" on it? What does a c with a line over it mean? Is this some secret doctor code? We’re here to break it all down for you, and it’s actually simpler than you think! Read this guide to learn all about the meaning behind the c with a line over it medical abbreviation, where the abbreviation comes from, how it’s used, and other important medical abbreviations you should know. What Does a C With a Line Over It Mean? The letter "c" with a line over it is a medical abbreviation often used by doctors, nurses, and other medical professionals. The symbol looks like this: c. The c is almost always lower-case. This symbol actually has a very simple meaning. A c with a line over it just means "with". This abbreviation is often used on patient charts and prescriptions, as well as information or notes written by medical professionals. Where Did the C With a Line Over It Abbreviation Come From? Where did the c with a line over it medical abbreviation come from? "With" is a short word, so why don’t doctors just write it out? Doctors and other medical providers use many abbreviations in their work. There are two main reasons for this. First, because doctors and nurses need to do a lot of writing throughout the day (writing prescriptions, filling out patient charts, taking notes, etc.) abbreviations can help them save time, even if the abbreviations are for small words. Second, abbreviations can make notes or instructions more legible and easy to read. Have you ever heard someone joke about how bad doctors’ handwriting is? It’s a common problem that when a doctor or nurse is scribbling instructions or prescription information, some of their words can be difficult to read. This can cause serious issues if it makes it harder to care for the patient or results in the wrong care being given. Using clear abbreviations can reduce instances of illegible handwriting. But how did a c with line over it get chosen as the abbreviation for "with"? The symbol c comes from the Latin word cum. While this word is often used as a slang word in modern English, in Latin cum means "with." Common phrases with this Latin word include graduation honors such as magna cum laude (with great praise) and summa cum laude (with highest praise). That’s where the "c" part comes from, and the line or bar over the top of it was added to differentiate it from the regular alphabet letter. How Is C With a Line Over It Used? Now you know that a c with a line over it means "with," but how is it actually used? Basically, anytime you use the word "with" you can just replace it with the symbol! Here are some examples of ways a doctor or nurse may use this abbreviation. Take medication c water = Take medication with water Recommendation is for surgery c physical therapy to follow = Recommendation is for surgery with physical therapy to follow Refill only c doctor approval = Refill only with doctor approval Symptoms are nausea c vomiting = Symptoms are nausea with vomiting You’ll most likely see the c symbol used on a prescription you receive, in your patient chart, or in notes or instructions given to you by a doctor or nurse. What Are Other Common Medical Abbreviations? Abbreviations are an important and common practice in the medical world. Below is a chart with some other medical abbreviations that are often used. Most of them are related to prescriptions since patients usually see a c with a line over it medical abbreviation on their prescription information. Some of these abbreviations may be written in all caps, some in all lower-case. Either way they mean the same thing; it’s just the personal preference of the person writing the abbreviations. Medical Abbreviation Meaning Ä  (a with a line over it) Before ABX Antibiotics AC Take before meal CC With food PC Take after meal MDD Maximum daily dose that can be taken p (p with a line over it) After PRN As required QD 1 medicine a day QHS At bedtime QOD Every other day s (s with a line over it) Without Conclusion So, what does a c with a line over it mean? A c with line over it medical abbreviation is a common abbreviation used by doctors, nurses, and other medical professionals to take the place of the word "with." The symbol c comes from the Latin word for "with," which is cum. Abbreviations are useful in the medical world because they make it faster to write instructions and information, and they can also make those notes easier to read. The c with a line over it symbol can be used any time you’d use the word "with," and you’ll most likely see it on prescription information or your medical chart. Abbreviations are used often in medicine, and you should look up any you don’t know to be sure you understand the information you're given. What's Next? Thinking about getting into healthcare administration, but not sure what kind of qualifications you need? Learn more here with our expert guide to getting a healthcare administration degree.

Trends in Contemporary Society Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words - 1

Trends in Contemporary Society - Essay Example This will be followed by an exploration of the cellular phone and its relevance today. Looking at the trend of banning cell phone use while driving, this section will explore the ways in which the cellular phone is perceived of as a hazard while driving. Finally, we explore television as the most ubiquitous technological phenomenon and the ways in which this media helps further democracy and free thought. Significantly, technological trends are at the forefront of social change and the following will explore a multitude of technological trends and look at their social significance. iPod, through its parent company Apple Computers, has fundamentally transformed the ways in which people listen to music. Whether it is through the Ipod personal audio system, downloaded tracks through iTunes, or through the highly popular innovation of the iPhone, Apple has successfully appealed to its target demographic through a variety of innovative means. iPod has successfully outmaneuvered nearly all of its adversaries within the personal music field and radically transformed an industry. Whether it is the iPod shuffle, the iPod touch, classic or nano, this particular product continues to innovate and thus has maintained its supreme position at the helm of the personal listening device field. With bright new flashy skins, as well as a series of interfaces which tie directly into the Apple network, the innovation of the iPod continues and has ensured that this product remains at the forefront of an ever-changing industry. Teenagers are the primary audience for Apple’s st rategic marketing campaigns as they are also an important buying demographic unencumbered by major financial obligations. Teenagers are the demographic who may be able to afford to spend $250 on the latest iPod or the accessories associated with the latest personal mp3 player. Because teenagers often have more disposable and non-discretionary income than most other demographic groups, they

Financial Planning and the Unsystematic Risk Statistics Assignment

Financial Planning and the Unsystematic Risk Statistics - Assignment Example Therefore, during winter, people will prefer buying winter tyres and when summer sets in, the demand for dry weather tyres will be high. i. The best asset for Gemma to choose is Rolls-Royce since it has the highest monthly real return coefficients. This implies that they will guarantee a high interest as opposed to those with low return percentage. The objective of making an analysis of a company’s fundamentals is to find the intrinsic value of the stock as opposed to the value with which the stock trades at in the market. Therefore, in carrying out an analysis, if the intrinsic value happens to be more than the current share price, then it shows that the stock is worth much value than its price and it makes sense in buying a stock. However, if this is not the case, then using the stock-analysis strategy like in the case of Gemma is not useful. In addition, the stock-pricing strategy offers a lot of information in an intangible and unmeasurable manner. It is easy to find some aspects of the company that are quantifiable. Such aspects include profits and they are quite easy to find. However, it is quite difficult to measure the qualitative factors such as the competitive advantages of a company, company staff and the reputation of the company. Therefore, the aspects make the picking stocks a subjective and intuitive process thus not suitable in such a case. In addition, the human element evident in the forces moving the stock market, the stocks cannot do whatever one anticipates that they will do since there is a likelihood of having a change in emotions quite unpredictably. Therefore, when confidence turns into some fear, the stock market can be a bit risky and dangerous. Therefore, this also contributes to the decision by Gemma not to use the stock-pricing strategy. i. In order to protect their portfolio of shares, Mark Brisley and Evie Petrikkou used the call and put options. The put option allowed them to sell assets at a given agreed on price while the call shows the right to buy shares at an agreed price.  

Incest in America Essay Example for Free

Incest in America Essay Nowadays, incest is viewed as one of the most harassing aspects of child abuse, since it is likely to result in psychological trauma and cause long-lasting negative effects in terms of healthy personality development. Governor’s Commission on Domestic Violence defines incest as â€Å"overt and/or covert sexual contact or acts between people who are related genetically, by marriage, by living arrangements, or in whom a child perceives a trusting relationship, for example parents, grandparents, siblings, aunts, uncles, cousins, step-parents, foster parents. Incest is one of the most common forms of child sexual abuse† (Governor’s Commission on Domestic Violence, 1996, p. 37). Unfortunately, the U. S. statistics on this topic is barely available, as the entitled researchers have access merely to reported cases, which give following information: 46 per cent of child rapists are family members, 70 per cent of whom have been at least once imprisoned (ibid). Nevertheless, the statistics suggests that incestual relationship might occur even in ‘non-deviant’, ‘decent’ nuclear families, because the positive correlation between the rapist’s previous crimes and child sexual abuse points merely to the fact that such crimes are more frequently discovered. The causes of incest can be categorized into three groups: biological, sociological and psychological. Biological factors indicate that certain percentage of inbreeding is important: â€Å"any system of inbreeding that is reasonably possible would not greatly reduce the heterozygosity of the population† (Williams, 1994, p. 1167), but this approach doesn’t actually clarify the reasons for child sexual abuse. Sociological perspective is oriented to societal factors, such as popularization of sexuality in its different forms (including illegal distribution of child pornography) and the societal roots of deviance as the violation of sociocultural patterns of sexual behavior: in macrosociological terms, sexual assault of children might be rooted in social inequality, distortion of family constructs (family roles and responsibilities) and anomia, i. e., poor implication of moral values in certain society of community (ibid). Psychological factors also enjoy diversity that includes the presence of personality, mental health and sexual disorders (pedophilia) and predispositions to sadistic behavior in abusers, so that family members can use sexual assault as a form of punishment as well as the means of satisfaction their sexual needs. It needs to be noted that incest is unacceptable from both sociological and psychological positions, so this crime intrinsically implies certain either social or personality pathology (Sedlack and Broadhurst, 1996). The main effects of incest on child can be explained through the influence of the abuse on child behavior and the coping mechanisms, which arise in response to the harassment. First of all, the child experiences fear and powerlessness, since they can no longer control his/her life and body, if the victim is aged over 7-8, he/she normally feels shame, responsibility and guilt, as the small individual already understands that normal order of things has been upset, but still has underdeveloped mechanisms of cognition to realize the depth of the problem. Furthermore, such traumatic experience detaches the child â€Å"from non-offending parents, brothers and sisters. This isolation often leads to the child being labeled as different, a problem, or in some way different from their siblings. Children feel betrayed because they are dependent upon adults for nurturing and protection and the offender is someone who they should be able to love and trust. They may also feel betrayed by a non-offending parent who they believe has failed to protect them† (Putnam, 1989, p. 271). If the assault takes places regularly throughout the long period, the underage victim is likely to suffer from nightmares and flashbacks, including hysterics, unexplainable tearfulness, rapid and momentary mood changes. Moreover, the research reports the increase of aggressiveness in such children: such destructive impulses can be directed either on child’s personality (and consequently affects ‘internal world, thoughts, reflections) or towards external objects and other individuals (including the abuser and non-offending family members). Adams argues that both overt and emotional (treating the child like one’s partner without direct sexual assault) incest finally amplifies the victim’s aggressiveness, hostility and irritability, and substantially inhibits his/her social skills, making the child reluctant to establish new contacts with coevals (Adams, 1991). As for the coping mechanisms, the victims of intrafamilial sexual assaults usually develop memory suppression, dissociation and denial. Memory suppression implies voluntary forgetting of the negative emotional states, ensured during the abuse. The victims therefore attempt to separate the negative incest experience from conscious awareness. â€Å"Dissociation is a way in which some children survive abuse by escaping mentally while the abuse is happening. The body and the mind seem to separate. While the body is being hurt, the child no longer feels it because the mind manages to escape to a perceived safe place. Different children may dissociate in different ways. One example is leaving the body and floating on the ceiling over the bed where the abuse is occurring† (Williams, 1994, p. 1171). Denial, as a rule, has two forms: denying the fact of incest and disclaiming the negative moral evaluation, which can be given to the fact (‘It’s not actually wrong’). The most dangerous about these mechanisms is their critical impact on the victim’s social functioning, as these defenses are aimed at maintaining physical survival, neglecting thus the related deterioration of emotional state. Those family members, who become aware of intrafamilial sexual assault, normally decide on the strategy of non-intervening, since this phenomenon often takes place in authoritarian families, where everyone has certain degree of fear for the perpetrator. Due to the fact that the forceful sexual contacts usually occur between male adults and female children (father and daughter) (Governor’s Commission on Domestic Violence, 1996) and that the same male adult often commits violence over his spouse, it is possible to presume that the entire family is intimidated by the perpetuator. As for the impact on the criminal him/herself, this person, as psychological research suggests, gradually develops sadistic propensities (Williams, 1994) and expresses cruelty when sexually abusing the child. If family haven’t yet noticed the internal incestual relationship, the perpetuator utilizes certain methods of maintaining secrecy and becomes more reserved and reticent even in the most trivial daily routines. Moreover, such criminals become increasingly more cunning and create a special communicative code, understandable only for his/herself and the child in order to enhance the organization of incestual relationship. In addition, perpetuators also use denial and rationalization as defense mechanisms (ibid), since intrafamilial sexual assault causes psychological trauma in the abuser, who breaks his/her moral convictions or the basic principles of societal coexistence. The major indicators of incest include: 1) child’s confessions/reports; 2) noticeable fear of certain family member; 3) extremely sophisticated understanding of sexual behavior; 4) â€Å"persistent and inappropriate sexual play with peers, toys, animals or themselves; 5) sexual themes in the childs artwork, stories or play; 6) sleep disturbances and nightmares; 7) marked changes in appetite; 8) parentified or adultified behaviour e. g.acting like a parent or spouse; 9) poor or deteriorating relationships with peers; 10)self-mutilation: cutting of arms, legs, burning home made tattoos. Suicidal feelings and suicide attempts† (Saunders et al , 2001, p. 8). The elimination of post-incestual effects usually correlates with treatment for post-traumatic disorder, but it is important to note that such trauma might cause irreversible changes in the victim’s convictions and perceptions (in adulthood – coitophobia, sociophobia, claustrophobia). As a rule, psychiatrists use cognitive processing therapy in order to provide appropriate cognitive restructuring and systematic desensitization concerning the negative memories; dynamic play therapy (using puppets when expressing fears); art therapy; family therapy (aimed at supporting the victim’s re-adjustment to the family environment) and attachment-trauma therapy (based upon placing the child into emotionally warm and friendly environment) (ibid). Similar psychological aid should be provided to the perpetuator: either in mental health or in penitentiary institutions they receive special cognitive-behavioral training, pharmaceutical treatment, but as a rule, the major intervention frameworks insist on complete separation of the abuser from the victim (Putnam, 1989), as the childhood experiences tend to return after meeting the perpetuator. Works cited Adams, K.(1991) Silently Seduced: When Parents Make Their Children Their Partners, Understanding Covert Incest. HCI. Governors Commission on Domestic Violence. (1996). The Children of Domestic Violence: A Report of the Governors Commission on Domestic Violence of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts Boston. Commonwealth of Massachusetts. Putnam, F. (1989). Diagnosis and Treatment of Multiple Personality Disorder. New York: Guilford Press. Saunders, B. , Berliner, L. and Hanson, R. (2001). Guidelines for the Psychological Treatment of Intrafamilial Child Physical and Sexual Abuse. Charleston, SC: Authors. Sedlak, A. and Broadhurst, D. (1996). Executive Summary of the Third National Incidence Study of Child Abuse and Neglect. Washington, DC: U. S. Department of Health and Human Services. Williams, L. (1994). Recall of Childhood Trauma: A Prospective Study of Womens Memories of Child Sexual Abuse. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 62 (6): 1167-176.